Democratic Culture

nArtists’ audience was broad citizenry of democracy, not refined elite

nRomanticism in America appealed to feelings and intuitions of ordinary Americans

nPopular literature sensationalized

–Genres included Gothic horror and romantic fiction

–Much popular literature written by and for women

–Melodrama dominated popular theater

Democratic Culture

nBy 1830s, subject of paintings switched from great events and people to scenes from everyday life

nArchitectural style reflected the tenets of ancient Greek democracy

nPurpose of art in democratic society was to encourage virtue and proper sentiment

–Landscape painters believed representations of untamed nature would elevate popular taste and convey moral truth

nOnly a few truly avant-garde, romantic artists, like Edgar Allan Poe

Democratic Political Institutions: Politics of Universal
Male Suffrage

nMost states adopted universal white male suffrage by the 1820s

nMany appointed offices made elective

nProfessional politicians and stable, statewide party organizations emerged

nPoliticians like Martin Van Buren promoted benefits of two-party system

–Concept of loyal opposition accepted

nDemocracy spread to presidency

–Most presidential electors chosen by popular vote rather state legislature by 1828

–Participation rates rose from 27% in early 1820s to high of 78% in 1840

Economic Issues

nInterest in government economic policy intensified after 1819

nPolitical activity and debate around economic issues foreshadowed rise of parties based around economic programs

nRepublican ideology from Revolution made people suspicious of groups they did not identify with or benefit from

–Jacksonians fear of “the money power”

nDebate over role of federal government in the economy

Labor Radicalism and
Equal Rights

nWorking men’s parties and trade unions emerged in the 1820s and 1830s to protect equal rights that appeared to be eroding because of low wages

nThey advocated public education reform, a ten-hour workday, an end to debtors’ prisons, and hard currency

nThey made some gains but were set back by the Depression of 1837

nThe women’s rights movement and abolitionists made little progress

Jackson and the Politics
of Democracy

nJackson became a symbol of democracy’s triumph

nActions of Jackson and his party
re-fashioned national politics in a democratic mold

nEra known as Jacksonian Democracy

The Election of 1824 and
J. Q. Adams’s Administration

nThe election of 1824 a five-way race

nJackson appealed to slaveholders and rural people opposed to Clay’s economic nationalism

nJackson got plurality of popular and electoral vote, but not a majority

nAdams won in House of Representatives with Henry Clay’s support

The Election of 1824 and
J. Q. Adams’s Administration

nClay’s appointment as Secretary of State led to charges of a “corrupt bargain” between Clay and Adams

nAdams rejected anti-economic nationalism sentiment in his policies

nMid-term election of 1826 gave Jackson forces control of Congress

nTariff became key issue and logrolling produced “Tariff of Abominations” in 1828

The Election of 1824

Jackson Comes to Power

n“Corrupt Bargain” set motivation for 1828 election

nInfluential state leaders supported Jackson

–Calhoun in South Carolina, Van Buren in New York

–Their efforts led to formation of Democratic party, first modern American party

nNew electioneering techniques of mass democracy born

–Parades, picnics, public rallies, etc.

Jackson Comes to Power

nCampaign dominated by personal attacks and mudslinging

nJacksonians won by portraying Jackson as authentic man of the people

nJackson unclear about his stands on policy issues of the day other than Indian removal

nJackson’s democratic stamp on his administration

–Defended “spoils system” as democratic

–Replaced most of cabinet because of Peggy Eaton affair

Indian Removal

nIndian removal policy inherited from prior administrations

nJackson agreed with state complaints that federal government had not removed Indians quickly enough

nSome southern states asserted authority over Indians in their borders

nJackson got federal government approval for state removal initiatives with Indian Removal Act of 1830

n1838—U.S. Army forced Cherokee west along the Trail of Tears

Indian Removal

The Nullification Crisis

nSouth opposed tariff because it increased prices for manufactured goods and endangered their access to foreign markets

nIn wake of 1828 Tariff, John C. Calhoun anonymously spelled out Doctrine of Nullification—right of an individual state to set aside state law

nPersonal relations between Jackson and Calhoun soured

n1830—Jefferson Day Dinner

–Jackson “to the union—it must be preserved”

–Calhoun “to the union—next to our liberty, the most dear”

The Nullification Crisis

n1832—tariff passed, South Carolina nullified

nJackson threatened to send army

nCompromise

–Force Bill authorized Jackson to use military to enforce federal law

–Clay’s Compromise Tariff of 1833 lowered rates

nNullification foreshadowed state sovereignty positions of the South in slavery debates

The Bank War and the Second Party System

n“The Bank War” a symbolic defense of Jacksonian concept of democracy

nLed to two important results

–Formation of opposition party to Jackson— the Whigs

–Economic disruption

Mr. Biddle’s Bank

nBank of the United States unpopular, blamed in South and West for 1819 Depression

n1823 Biddle took over and restored confidence

nJeffersonians opposed bank on principle as unconstitutional and preserve of corrupt special privilege

nBank possessed great power and privilege with no public accountability

The Bank Veto and the Election of 1832

nJackson vaguely threatened bank in first term

nOn advice of Clay, Biddle sought new charter four years early in 1832

nCongress passed, but Jackson vetoed

–Claimed the bank was unconstitutional

–Defended veto as a blow for equality

nJacksonian victory in 1832 spelled bank’s doom

The Election of 1832

Killing the Bank

nJackson destroyed bank by removing federal deposits

nFunds transferred to state (“pet”) banks

nBiddle used his powers to cause recession, attempted to blame Jackson

nClay got censure of Jackson through Senate for abusing his power (Jackson’s withdrawal of deposits from bank)

nDestruction of bank provoked fears of dictatorship, cost Jackson support in Congress

The Emergence of the Whigs

nWhig party a coalition of forces, first united in censure of Jackson

–Clay and National Republicans

–Webster and New England ex-Federalists

–States-rights southerners

–Anti-Masonic party

nWhigs defended activist government in economics, enforcement of “decency”

nDemocrats opposed government regulation of morality

nDemocrats weakened by

–Defection of Loco-Focos faction upset over pet banks

–Specie Circular led to the Panic of 1837

The Rise and Fall of Van Buren

nMartin Van Buren Jackson’s handpicked successor

nWhig strategy in 1836 was to run four candidates and force election to House of Representatives; it failed

nTerm began with Panic of 1837

nPanic caused more by complex changes in global economy than Jackson’s fiscal policy

The Rise and Fall of Van Buren

nLaissez-faire philosophy prevented Van Buren from helping to solve the problems of economic distress

nVan Buren attempted to save government funds with independent sub-treasuries

nWhigs blocked sub-treasuries until 1840

The Election of 1836

The Rise and Fall of Van Buren

nWhigs fully organized by 1840

nWhig candidate William Henry Harrison

–Image built of a common man who had been born in a log cabin

–Running mate John Tyler chosen to attract votes from states-rights Democrats

nHarrison and Tyler beat Van Buren because their revival of the American system seemed like a good response

Heyday of the Second
Party System

nElection of 1840 marked rise of permanent two-party system in the U.S.

nWhigs and Democrats evenly divided the electorate for next two decades

nParties offered voters a clear choice

–Whigs supported a “positive liberal state”:  government should support and protect industries that help economic growth

–Democrats supported “negative liberal state”: government should not interfere in economy

Heyday of the Second
Party System

nWhigs

–Industrialists, merchants, successful farmers, more likely Protestant

nDemocrats

–Small farmers, manufacturing, more likely Catholic

Tocqueville’s Wisdom

nAlexis de Tocqueville praised most aspects of American democracy

nWarned of future disaster if white males refused to extend liberty to women, African Americans, and Indians

Chapter 12
THE PURSUIT OF PERFECTION

The Rise of Evangelicalism

lSeparation of church and state gave all churches the chance to compete for converts

lPious Protestants formed voluntary associations to combat sin, “infidelity”

The Second Great Awakening: The Frontier Phase

lCamp meetings contributed to frontier life

–Provided emotional religion

–Offer opportunity for social life

lCamp meeting revivals conveyed intensely personal religious message

lCamp meetings rarely led to social reform

The Second Great Awakening in the North

lNew England reformers led by Timothy Dwight defended Calvinism against the Enlightenment

lNathaniel Taylor: Individuals are free agents and can overcome natural inclination to sin

lLyman Beecher and evangelical Calvinism

lCharles G. Finney

–Departed radically from Calvinist doctrine

–Appeal is based in emotion not reason

–Finney preached in upstate New York and stressed revival techniques

lBeecher and others disturbed by emotionalism of Finney’s methods

lRevivals led to organization of more churches

From Revivalism to Reform

lNorthern revivals stimulated reform

lMiddle-class participants adapted evangelical religion to preserve traditional values

l"The benevolent empire" of evangelical reform movements altered American life

–For example, temperance movement cut alcohol consumption by more than 50%

Domesticity and Changes in the American Family

lNew conception of family’s role in society

lChild rearing seen as essential preparation for self-disciplined Christian life

lWomen confined to domestic sphere

lWomen assumed crucial role within home

Marriage for Love

lMutual love must characterize marriage

lWives became more of a companion to their husbands and less of a servant

lLegally, the husband was the unchallenged head of the household

The Cult of Domesticity

l"The Cult of True Womanhood"

–Placed women in the home

–Glorified home as center of all efforts to civilize and “Christianize” society

lMiddle- and upper-class women increasingly dedicated to the home as mothers

lWomen of leisure entered reform movements

The Discovery of Childhood

lNineteenth-century child the center of family

lEach child seen as unique, irreplaceable

lIdeal to form child’s character with affection

lParental discipline to instill guilt, not fear

lTrain child to learn self-discipline

lFamily size declines from average of 7.04 children to 5.42 by 1850

Institutional Reform

lDomesticity informed public institutions

lSchools continued what family began

lAsylums, prisons mended family’s failures

The Extension of Education

lPublic schools expanded rapidly from 1820 to 1850

lMeans of advancement for working class

lMeans of inculcating values of hard work, responsibility to middle-class reformers

lHorace Mann argued schools saved immigrants, poor children from parents’ bad influence

lMany parents believed public schools alienated children from their parents

Discovering the Asylum

lPoor, criminal, insane seen as lacking self-discipline

lHarsh measures to promote rehabilitation

–Solitary confinement of prisoners

–Strict daily schedule

lPublic support for rehabilitation skimpy

lPrisons, asylums, poorhouses became warehouses for the unwanted

Reform Turns Radical

lMost reform aimed to improve society

lSome radical reformers sought destruction of old society, creation of perfect social order

Divisions in the
Benevolent Empire

lRadical perfectionists impatient by 1830s, split from moderate reform

–Temperance movement 

–Peace movement

–Antislavery movement

lModerates sought gradual end to slavery and colonization of freed slaves to its colony of Liberia

lRadicals like William Lloyd Garrison demanded immediate emancipation

–1831: Garrison founded The Liberator

–1833: American Anti-Slavery Society

The Abolitionist Enterprise:  
Theodore Dwight Weld

lWeld an itinerant minister converted by Finney

lAdapted his revivalist techniques to abolition

lSuccessful mass meetings in Ohio, New York

The Abolitionist Enterprise:  Public Reception

lAppealed to hard-working small town folk

lOpposition in cities & near Mason-Dixon line

lOpposition from the working class

–Disliked blacks

–Feared black economic and social competition

lSolid citizens saw abolitionists as anarchists

The Abolitionist Enterprise:  Obstacles

lAbolitionists hampered by in-fighting

lWilliam Lloyd Garrison disrupted movement by associating with radical reform efforts

–Urged abolitionists to abstain from participating in the political process

–Also involved in women’s rights movement

lSome abolitionists helped form the Liberty Party in 1840

Black Abolitionists

lFormer slaves related the horrible realities of bondage

–Prominent figures included Frederick Douglass and Sojourner Truth

lBlack newspapers, books, and pamphlets publicized abolitionism to a wider audience

lBlacks were also active in the Underground Railroad

From Abolitionism to
Women's Rights

lAbolitionism opened to women’s participation

lInvolvement raised awareness of women’s inequality

lSeneca Falls Convention in 1848

–Organized by Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton

–Prompted by experience of inequality in abolition movement

–Began movement for women’s rights

Radical Ideas & Experiments:  Utopian Communities

lUtopian socialism

–Inspired by Robert Owen, Charles Fourier

–New Harmony, Indiana—Owenite

–Fourierite phalanxes

lReligious utopianism

–Shakers

–Oneida Community

Utopian Communities Before the Civil War

Radical Ideas & Experiments:  Transcendentalism

lRalph Waldo Emerson

lMargaret Fuller

lGeorge Ripley

–Founded cooperative community at Brook Farm

lHenry David Thoreau and Walden

Counterpoint on Reform

lReform encountered perceptive critics

–Nathaniel Hawthorne allegorically refuted perfectionist movements suggesting the world was inherently an imperfect place

lReform prompted necessary changes in American life